L'etoile de mer

In the late 1880’s, Sigmund Freud began to construct his theories and the technique of psychoanalysis.  The original intent of psychoanalysis was to treat patients with various psychological pathologies, but later the psychoanalytical method would be applied to art history.  

The Oedipus complex is an important concept that Freud introduced.  Simply stated, the Oedipus complex involves feelings of longing toward the parent of the opposite sex, and feelings of hostility towards the parent of the same sex.  The Oedipal Stage occurs during early childhood; eventually, the feelings towards one’s parents are repressed.  Freud believed that if an artist encounters conflicts during the Oedipal Stage, then there would be evidence of this in their artwork.  The theory has sparked discussion and disagreement among differing schools of thought.  Feminists criticize the concept of “penis envy,” and in interpretations, reduce the importance of “castration anxiety.”  Anthropologists question whether or not the Oedipal Stage can be applied to different cultures, as it is not necessarily universal.  Ultimately, the variety of viewpoints enriches the Psychoanalytical approach.

An artist has the urge to create due to sublimation, Freud stated.  As children, we learn to redirect instincts into goals that are culturally acceptable and valuable.  Thus, instead of acting out aggressively and harming another (which would be socially unacceptable), an artist may transfer their energy into action painting, for example.  The concept of sublimation has lead to the recognition of art’s therapeutic power.  Jackson Pollock’s psychoanalyst, Joseph Henderson, believed that Pollock’s art “gave him an avenue for transcendence.”  It could be argued that art therapy is a direct benefit of Freud’s insistence of a connection between the inner workings of the mind and art.

There are undeniable weaknesses in the Psychoanalytic approach that have been examined over time.  Freud characterized creativity as a universal human need to resolve conflicts within; theoretically, this means one should be able to derive psychological meaning from any work of art.  Yet, it is extremely difficult to extract such information from landscape paintings and the art of the Impressionists.  The Psychoanalytical approach would be an impractical method to analyze such works.  Another obstacle one may encounter when examining a work of art from the psychoanalytical point of view is lack of biographical information.  Many of Freud’s theories deal with very early stages in a person’s life, and there are times when this information is not available, or the information available may or may not be credible.  Eventually this can lead to faulty speculations.  Another criticism of Freud’s methods is that the psychoanalytical approach undermines the artist’s intention.  In contrast to this view, “Sartre emphasized the freedom of the creator in opposition to Freudian determinism.” 

Topic: Women and Surrealism

Belton, Robert J.  The Beribboned Bomb: The Image of Woman in Male

Surrealist Art.  Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1995.

Belton’s thesis is that in the art of the Surrealists there is no uniform image of a woman; however, they did subscribe to an “ideologically limited set of conventions.”  Belton presents his information alongside philosophical arguments about culture (for example, the theories of Clifford Geertz are mentioned.)  The focus of the text goes beyond the field of art history.

Bowen, Dore.  “Exquisite Correspondence: a Dialogue with Whitney Chadwick.” 

Afterimage.  (1999).  http://findarticles.com.

This is an interview with Whitney Chadwick, who was the co-curator of the exhibition “Mirror Images: Women, Surrealism, and Self-Representation.”  She comments on the public’s response to the exhibition and the feminist message that it promoted.  She also talks about the mirror as a symbol of transformation.  Chadwick provides information that helps to make the intent of the exhibition clear.

Caws, Mary Ann.  The Surrealist Look: Erotics of Encounter.  Cambridge: MIT

Press, 1999.

Female representation in Surrealist art is not the focus of the entire text.  However, in specific chapters, there is relevant information.  One topic Caws examines is why the woman is often depicted as disassembled instead of whole in Surrealist art.  The chapters on the female artists Dorothea Tanning and Claude Cahun analyze the issue of self-representation. 

Caws, Mary Ann, Rudolf Kuenzli and Gwen Raaberg.  Surrealism and Women. 

Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993.

The focus of this text goes beyond the art of women Surrealists; the book contains analysis of their writings as well.  Also included is an interview with Meret Oppenheim, and at the end of the text there is a statement by Dorothea Tanning.  Surrealism and Women contains the words of women directly involved in the movement, and this makes it a unique source.

Chadwick, Whitney.  Mirror Images Women, Surrealism, and Self-

Represenation.  Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998.

This text functions as an exhibition catalogue, although it can also be used independent from the exhibition as well.  Throughout the essays in Mirror Images, links between the works of female Surrealists and contemporary artists such as Cindy Sherman and Louise Bourgeois are uncovered.  These comparisons are thought provoking.

Chadwick, Whitney.  “The Muse as Artist: Women in the Surrealist

Movement.”  Art in America, July 1985, 120-129.

Whitney Chadwick states that the role of women in the Surrealist movement has been reduced.  She analyzes works by Kay Sage, Dorothea Tanning, and others.  She celebrates these artists’ self-portraits, and refers to them as “true” self-portraits; she believes them to be more revealing.  Chadwick explores how and why the violence depicted in the work of female Surrealists is often directed at the self.  The article is thorough and worthy of multiple readings. 

Conley, Katharine.  Automatic Women: The Representation of Woman

in Surrealism.  Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996.

Conely compares the works of Unica Zürn, Leonora Carrington, and Andé Breton.  In this text, the significance of partnership is stressed.  Conley states that another purpose of the text is to show how the work of the Surrealists can be linked to developments in feminism during the 1970’s.

Foster, Hal.  Prosthetic Gods.  Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004.

In this text, Foster argues that male Surrealists saw women as objects, and women were manipulated through the “male gaze.”  Foster claims that the hostile attitude Surrealists had towards women was a reaction to changes that occurred during wartime.  Although there are new and interesting ideas presented in this book, some of the interpretations of images seem stretched.

Greer, Germaine.  “Double Vision.”  The Guardian, March 5, 2007, p 18.

Germaine Greer states that by evaluating the work of the Surrealists, it can be deduced that their female counterparts were forced into “fetishistic roles.”  Women that fulfill a male’s fetishistic desire appear in the Surrealist’s work again and again, and Greer refers to this as a “Surrealist stereotype.”  Greer’s strong wording suggests hostility at times, which takes away from the article slightly. 

Hopkins, David.  “Men Before the Mirror: Duchamp, Man Ray, and Masculinity.”

Art History 21, no. 3 (1998): 303-321.

The focus of the article is the collaborations between Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray.  Hopkins states that their ideas concerning masculinity and gender clashed: Marcel Duchamp was more interested in gender ambiguity, where as Man Ray’s work highlighted gender differences.  This is an important source because it reveals the attitudes the Surrealists had toward masculinity; this information could shed light on their interpretations of femininity.

Hubert, Renée Riese.  Magnifying Mirrors: Women, Surrealism, and

Partnership.  Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994.

The thesis of this text is that the partnerships between male and female Surrealist artists provided more than just romantic inspiration.  The relationships of Leonora Carrington and Max Ernst, Hans Bellmer and Unica Zürn, Lee Miller and Man Ray, as well as a few lesser-known relationships are studied in each chapter.  Hubert explores the destructive as well as the constructive aspects of these relationships.

Legge, Elizabeth.  Review of Marcel Duchamp and Max Ernst: The Bride

Shared, by David Hopkins.  Art History 23, no. 2 (2000): 328-329.

Besides communicating the importance of these two artists, the reviewer says that this text is a “project for investigating the construction of gender.”  Elizabeth Legge states that David Hopkins’s connections of representations of brides, nuns, women, nature, etc is persuasive.  Overall, the reviewer judges David Hopkins’s arguments to be convincing. 

Lusty, Natalya.  Surrealism, Feminism, Psychoanalysis.  Burlington: Ashgate and

Gower, 2007.

Within this text, the female response to Freudian theories is discussed.  Natalya Lusty’s intent is to reveal “blind spots” that appear in the work of Breton, Lacan, and others.  Certain psychological themes of female Surrealists’ work are explored (for example, narcissism.)  The author refers to examples in popular/modern culture in order to make points clearer. 

Mahon, Alyce.  Eroticism and Art.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Although the focus of this book is broad, there is a chapter on Surrealism, and within the chapter there is a subsection on women Surrealists.  Their use of erotic symbolism is discussed.  The author explains how they used these symbols to explore the issue of power.  The author uses specific examples, which is helpful.  

Markus, Ruth. “Surrealism’s Praying Mantis and Castrating Woman.” Woman’s

Art Journal 21, no. 1 (2000): 33-39.

The thesis of Ruth Markus’s article is that the praying mantis in Surrealism is associated with the “preying female.”  The “preying female” is threatening to the male; the male fears her because of his fear of castration.  Metamorphosis, and the life and death instincts are also analyzed in the Surrealists’ work.  The article contains anthropological information about the significance of the praying mantis in other cultures.

Montagu, Jenna.  The Surrealists: Revolutionaries in Art and Writing 1919-1935. 

London: Tate Publishing, 2002.

Within this text is a chapter titled “Woman: Symbol of Revolution.”  Montagu presents the argument that the Surrealists’ embrace of femininity was an attack on conventional society.  The work of Giacometti is discussed, particularly his sculptures that eluded to violence towards women.  The author explains that the exploration of taboos was a way of rebelling against and undermining tradition.  The images of artists’ works are exceptional.

Ray, Man.  Self Portrait.  Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1963.

This source is helpful because it was composed by the artist; thus, none of his quotes are taken out of context.  The chapter “The True Story of Kiki de Montparnasse” is revealing.  Man Ray’s comments indicate his attitude toward the female gender.  His recollections contain information about women involved in the Surrealist movement and their roles as lovers and muses.

Rosemont, Penelope, ed.  Surrealist Women.  Austin: University of Texas Press,1998.

This is an extensive collection of information about women involved in Surrealism (many of them have received little acknowledgement.)  It includes information about their thought processes and their writing, not just details about their artwork.  The author’s thesis is that the Surrealist movement allowed for these women to explore self-awareness.  The text highlights and celebrates the diversity of this group of women.  

Schneede, Uwe M.  Max Ernst.  Translated by R. W. Last.  New York; Praeger

Publishers, 1972. 

This is a monograph of Max Ernst that covers a substantial amount of work.  It is organized clearly.  The analysis of his collages and variations of the human figure are the most helpful in my case.  There are many examples of collages in which, the author claims, Ernst reveals sadistic desires (often involving women.)  The author speculates about private obsessions and sometimes resorts to Freudian analysis.    

Stanely, Morgan.  Surrealism Desire Unbound. 

http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/surrealism/

The Surrealists’ view of women is explored in this exhibition.  The message of the exhibition is that the Surrealists’ attitude towards women can be considered a counter-attack against the view of women either as mothers or virgins.  Other themes explored are: redefining femininity, ambiguity, and psychosexual tension.  The diversity of the work featured is impressive; the exhibition appears to be put together well.

I am back from the dead (the illness that has been going around is quite wicked), and I will be in class today to discuss Roger Fry.  Here is a little introduction:

Roger Fry was educated at Cambridge, where a professor encouraged his emerging interest in art.  He was a member of the Bloomsbury Group, and although the psychoanalytical approach was fashionable within the group, he resisted it.  Instead, he formed his own theory, the Formalist theory, which emphasized the difference between art and life.  By separating art from life, Fry was able to “analyze works out of context – as pure form, rather than as expressions of time and place.”[1]  He was curator of paintings for the Metropolitan Museum of art in New York from 1905 to 1910.  He was influential abroad, and at home as well.  “From 1910 he was regarded in England as the apostle of modern art.”[2]  Roger Fry is known for coining the term “Post-Impressionism.”  He applied this term to artists he believed “had transcended the interest in depicting appearances” and “exemplified expressive use of form with originality.”[3]  In 1910, at the Grafton Galleries, he staged the first Post-Impressionism exhibition.  Despite the somewhat disapproving response, he held another Post-Impressionism exhibition in 1912.  Roger Fry published essays and lectured throughout his life.  He was the Slade lecturer at Cambridge from 1933 until his death in September, 1934.  After Fry’s death, one of the Bloomsbury Group’s most famous members, Virginia Woolfe, wrote his biography.  It was published in 1940. 

It’s fascinating to trace a tale’s evolution and study how it takes on new meaning over time.  

Gustave Doré’s illustrations accompanied Perrault’s fairy tales when they were republished in 1867.  I think he preserved the frightening atmosphere of the story that, in many other depictions, was almost entirely removed.

Here is another image of the same scene by a different (unfortunately unknown) artist.  There just isn’t the same aura of tension.

“Little Red Riding Hood” has been analyzed from a variety of different angles.  Here are just a few interpretations I have come across: the hood represents the girl’s maidenhead, and the story is about losing one’s virginity, the story is actually about pregnancy envy, the story illustrates the male’s desire to overpower and “absorb” the female… etc.

There’s no doubt that Kiki Smith knew viewers would contemplate her work with a number of these interpretations in mind.  I think her pieces are successful in allowing the viewer imaginative freedom when considering her message.

Here is a site on Smith’s work that has been put together very well; you can browse some of her work by theme - http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/2003/kikismith/

And, just for fun, here’s a depiction of Little Red Riding Hood by Yoshimoto Nara.  She looks feisty doesn’t she?

The Importance of Book Reviews in Art History

Date of publication

An exhibit review or book review could reveal attitudes toward a subject during a particular time (examples: 1913 Armory show, Impressionists.)

Original language

A perfect translation is nearly impossible, but errors can harm credibility (example: in a review published in 1989 by James Gardner in the volume 41, issue 14 of National Review, he mentioned that there were errors in Mary Gerrard’s Italian, French, and Latin that “did not inspire confidence.”)

Sometimes there can be different interpretations when it comes to translating a text (example: according to a review of Gerrard’s text by Elizabeth Cropper, “misunderstandings surface in her interpretation of Italian texts.”)

Audience

It is important to understand who the author had in mind when writing a text (is it an introductory text or does the author expect you to have some knowledge on the subject?)  A review will help one to determine if the book is appropriate for an expert or for someone new to a particular subject.  If an author’s focus is more broad, and includes information from multiple disciplines, this can be a strength (example: in the review by Sheila Ffolliott, she mentions that the potential audience for the book by Gerrard includes those interested in the field of literature as well as women’s studies.)

Interest

A reviewer states the main purpose of the text, and this is helpful for research (example: in the Pollock article, it is stated that the aim of Gerrard is to “reincorporate Artemesia Gentileschi into the art history canon.”)  The author should state their purpose clearly in the text; however, there may also be an underlying objective.  Some reviewers mention this (example: Edward Goldberg stated in the volume 96, issue 2 of American Historical Review that more “scholarly discretion” was needed in Mary Gerrard’s analysis of Artemesia Gntileschi because her interest seemed to be more personal; in other words, the text was more of an homage.)  I do think it is important to read more than one review before assuming that the reviewer is correct in their assumption.

Method

Almost every review of Gerrard’s book mentioned that her method of analyzing was through the feminist perspective.  There are both pros and cons to this approach (example: in a review by Spears, he stated that he thought Gerrard’s interpretations were actually over interpretive feminist projections.  Cropper suggested in her review that because of Gerrard’s narrow-minded approach, she “underestimates the importance of Rubens and Caravaggio.”)  

Value

Is this text new or different, and is it different from other texts that have already been published?  This is what the reviewer must determine.  Basically, when reading a review, you are looking for the answer to this question: “is this book worth reading?”  (example: all of the reviews I read about Gerrard’s book on Artemesia Gentileschi said that, although there were some flaws, there was new and important knowledge that Gerrard had uncovered.)  The point of a review is to highlight the strengths of a text (example: in Ffolliott’s review, she stated that the greatest accomplishment of Mary Gerrard is her interpretation of the artist’s portrayal of the “female hero.”)  Reviews also caution readers about certain aspects of a book that may be questionable.

Alfried Stieglitz is probably best known for his photographs, especially those of his wife Georgia O’Keeffe.  His involvement in photography eventually lead him to become deeply committed to promoting modern art in America.  As a young man, Stieglitz learned about photography in Europe.  Then, he settled in New York, where he surrounded himself with creative individuals.  His mission was to encourage the artistic community to accept photography as fine art.  Stieglitz founded a group, the Photo-Sucessionists, and created a magazine in an effort to bring attention to photography.  He also opened a gallery in which he hoped to show photographs side by side with paintings and sculptures.  Stieglitz’s gallery, “291,” was very successful.  Some of the most notable artists of the 20th Century, such as Picasso and Matisse, had their first U.S. shows at 291.  Stieglitz considered it important for artists in the U.S. to develop their own unique modernist style, so he supported a number of emerging American artists like Arthur Dove and Marsden Hartley.  The last exhibition at 291 was Georgia O’Keeffe’s solo show.  Not long after, he left his wife in order to marry Georgia O’Keeffe.  Alfred Stieglitz was also involved in the establishing of two other galleries – The Intimate Gallery and An American Place.  He maintained an active role in the managing of the galleries until the very end of his life.  The works that he collected over the years were donated to various institutions such as the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art and the Philadelphia Museum of Art.  After Stieglitz died in 1946, Georgia O’Keeffe donated more than 1,500 of his work to the National Gallery of Art.

“Stieglitz, Alfred.” Oxford Reference Online. http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy.umw.edu:2048/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t238.e1280 (accessed February 1, 2009).

Considering the state of the market during this economic crisis, the decision to auction off works from the Rose Art Museum’s permanent collection seems somewhat desperate.  It’s hard to believe that there are no other options to help their financial situation.  Perhaps, this is simply the most obvious solution.  

I found this story to be especially sad after reading a bit about the numerous people involved in the establishment of the museum.  Very generous individuals helped to make this museum’s collection prestigious.  I think the people involved intended for the collection to be viewed by all, especially young, aspiring artists and art historians.

Ultimately, I think the university’s decision undermines their commitment to the arts.

I am majoring in English, and recently decided to also major in art history. I enjoy the act of interpretation, whether the work being interpreted is a sculpture or a poem. I also enjoy participating in discussions concerning terms such as “intention,” or even the term “art” and how it is defined. The questions that emerge from such discussions are extremely important to consider: Can “art” be defined? How does one determine the “value” of a work of art? And so on… These questions are “related to a whole body of beliefs we wish to reinforce or challenge” (Gombrich 235).

In one of the readings, Gombrich stated that the study of “metaphors and symbols in language, literature, and art provides no doubt convenient points of entry into the study of cultural interactions” (234). I have noticed that the more knowledge I gain about the history of art, the better I understand the human experience. By the human experience, I do not necessarily mean history as we conventionally think of it – names, dates, and accomplishments, etc. Instead of remembering the past as a series isolated elements, My study of literature and art has helped me to understand the interconnectivity of it all. There is a certain “consciousness” that comes to mind when I contemplate the past. Using art as a guide, I find that “the chaotic variety of human records” become decipherable (Panofsky 186).

I hope to someday be in a position that will allow me to regularly pass such information on to others. As long as I am able to stimulate excitement and passion about art, it does not matter to me whether I am in a classroom or a museum.